33. Godwin, SC; Krkosek, M; Reynolds, JD; Bateman, AW. (2021) Bias in self-reported parasite data from the salmon farming industry.Ecol. Appl. 31 Bias in self-reported parasite data from the salmon farming industry
Caligus clemensi; environmental compliance; environmental management; environmental policy; industry data; Lepeophtheirus salmonis; Pacific salmon; policy implementation; salmon farms; salmon lice; sea lice; self‐ reported data
Many industries are required to monitor themselves in meeting regulatory policies intended to protect the environment. Self-reporting of environmental performance can place the cost of monitoring on companies rather than taxpayers, but there are obvious risks of bias, often addressed through external audits or inspections. Surprisingly, there have been relatively few empirical analyses of bias in industry self-reported data. Here, we test for bias in reporting of environmental compliance data using a unique data set from Canadian salmon farms, where companies monitor the number of parasitic sea lice on fish in open sea pens, in order to minimize impacts on wild fish in surrounding waters. We fit a hierarchical population-dynamics model to these sea-louse count data using a Bayesian approach. We found that the industry's monthly counts of two sea-louse species, Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis, increased by a factor of 1.95 (95% credible interval: 1.57, 2.42) and 1.18 (1.06, 1.31), respectively, in months when counts were audited by the federal fisheries department. Consequently, industry sea-louse counts are less likely to trigger costly but mandated delousing treatments intended to avoid sea-louse epidemics in wild juvenile salmon. These results highlight the potential for combining external audits of industry self-reported data with analyses of their reporting to maintain compliance with regulations, achieve intended conservation goals, and build public confidence in the process. DOI PubMed
32. Price, MHH; Moore, JW; Connors, BM; Wilson, KL; Reynolds, JD. (2021) Portfolio simplification arising from a century of change in salmon population diversity and artificial production.J. Appl. Ecol. 58: 1477-1486 Portfolio simplification arising from a century of change in salmon population diversity and artificial production
artificial production; biodiversity loss; conservation genetics; fisheries; historical ecology; population diversity; portfolio effects; salmon abundance
Population and life-history diversity can buffer species from environmental variability and contribute to long-term stability through differing responses to varying conditions akin to the stabilizing effect of asset diversity on financial portfolios. While it is well known that many salmon populations have declined in abundance over the last century, we understand less about how different dimensions of diversity may have shifted. Specifically, how has diminished wild abundance and increased artificial production (i.e. enhancement) changed portfolios of salmon populations, and how might such change influence fisheries and ecosystems? We apply modern genetic tools to century-old sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka scales from Canada's Skeena River watershed to (a) reconstruct historical abundance and age-trait data for 1913-1947 to compare with recent information, (b) quantify changes in population and life-history diversity and the role of enhancement in population dynamics, and (c) quantify the risk to fisheries and local ecosystems resulting from observed changes in diversity and enhancement. The total number of wild sockeye returning to the Skeena River during the modern era is 69% lower than during the historical era; all wild populations have declined, several by more than 90%. However, enhancement of a single population has offset declines in wild populations such that aggregate abundances now are similar to historical levels. Population diversity has declined by 70%, and life-history diversity has shifted: populations are migrating from freshwater at an earlier age, and spending more time in the ocean. There also has been a contraction in abundance throughout the watershed, which likely has decreased the spatial extent of salmon provisions to Indigenous fisheries and local ecosystems. Despite the erosion of portfolio strength that this salmon complex hosted a century ago, total returns now are no more variable than they were historically perhaps in part due to the stabilizing effect of artificial production. Policy implications. Our study provides a rare example of the extent of erosion of within-species biodiversity over the last century of human influence. Rebuilding a diversity of abundant wild populations-that is, maintaining functioning portfolios-may help ensure that watershed complexes like the Skeena are robust to global change. DOI
31. Wilcox, KA; Wagner, MA; Reynolds, JD. (2021) Salmon subsidies predict territory size and habitat selection of an avian insectivore.PLoS One 16 Salmon subsidies predict territory size and habitat selection of an avian insectivore
The annual migration and spawning event of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) can lead to cross-boundary delivery of marine-derived nutrients from their carcasses into adjacent terrestrial ecosystems. The densities of some passerine species, including Pacific wrens (Troglodytes pacificus), have been shown to be positively correlated with salmon abundance along streams in Alaska and British Columbia, but mechanisms maintaining these densities remain poorly understood. Riparian areas near salmon streams could provide higher quality habitat for birds through greater food availability and more suitable vegetation structure for foraging and breeding, resulting in wrens maintaining smaller territories. We examined relationships between salmon biomass and Pacific wren territory size, competition, and habitat selection along 11 streams on the coast of British Columbia, Canada. We show that male wren densities increase and territory sizes decrease as salmon-spawning biomass increases. Higher densities result in higher rates of competition as male wrens countersing more frequently to defend their territories along streams with more salmon. Wrens were also more selective of the habitats they defended along streams with higher salmon biomass; they were 68% less likely to select low-quality habitat on streams with salmon compared with 46% less likely at streams without salmon. This suggests a potential trade-off between available high-quality habitat and the cost of competition that structures habitat selection. Thus, the marine-nutrient subsidies provided by salmon carcasses to forests lead to higher densities of wrens while shifting the economics of territorial defence toward smaller territories being defended more vigorously in higher quality habitats. DOI PubMed
28. Wagner, MA; Reynolds, JD. (2019) Salmon increase forest bird abundance and diversity.PLoS One 14 Salmon increase forest bird abundance and diversity
Resource subsidies across ecosystems can have strong and unforeseen ecological impacts. Marine-derived nutrients from Pacific salmon (Onchorhycus spp.) can be transferred to streams and riparian forests through diverse food web pathways, fertilizing forests and increasing invertebrate abundance, which may in turn affect breeding birds. We quantified the influence of salmon on the abundance and composition of songbird communities across a wide range of salmon-spawning biomass on 14 streams along a remote coastal region of British Columbia, Canada. Point-count data spanning two years were combined with salmon biomass and 13 environmental covariates in riparian forests to test for correlates with bird abundance, foraging guilds, individual species, and avian diversity. We show that bird abundance and diversity increase with salmon biomass and that watershed size and forest composition are less important predictors. This work provides new evidence for the importance of salmon to terrestrial ecosystems and information that can inform ecosystem-based management. DOI PubMed
27. Pardo, SA; Cooper, AB; Reynolds, JD; Dulvy, NK. (2018) Quantifying the known unknowns: estimating maximum intrinsic rate of population increase in the face of uncertainty.ICES J. Mar. Sci. 75 Quantifying the known unknowns: estimating maximum intrinsic rate of population increase in the face of uncertainty
bycatch; Carcharhinus; Chondrichthyes; demography; Elasmobranchii; reference points; risk assessment
Sensitivity to overfishing is often estimated using simple models that depend upon life history parameters, especially for species lacking detailed biological information. Yet, there has been little exploration of how uncertainty in life history parameters can influence demographic parameter estimates and therefore fisheries management options. We estimate the maximum intrinsic rate of population increase (rmax) for ten coastal carcharhiniform shark populations using an unstructured life history model that explicitly accounts for uncertainty in life history parameters. We evaluate how the two directly estimated parameters, age at maturity amat and annual reproductive output b, most influenced rmax estimates. Uncertainty in age at maturity values was low, but resulted in moderate uncertainty in rmax estimates. The model was sensitive to uncertainty in annual reproductive output for the least fecund species with fewer than 5 female offspring per year, which is not unusual for large elasmobranchs, marine mammals, and seabirds. Managers and policy makers should be careful to restrict mortality on species with very low annual reproductive output< 2 females per year. We recommend elasmobranch biologists to measure frequency distributions of litter sizes (rather than just a range) as well as improving estimates of natural mortality of data-poor elasmobranchs. DOI
26. van den Top, GG; Reynolds, JD; Prins, HHT; Mattsson, J; Green, DJ; Ydenberg, RC. (2018) From salmon to salmonberry: The effects of salmon-derived nutrients on the stomatal density of leaves of the nitriphilic shrub Rubus spectabilis.Funct. Ecol. 32 From salmon to salmonberry: The effects of salmon-derived nutrients on the stomatal density of leaves of the nitriphilic shrub Rubus spectabilis
Great Bear Rainforest; nutrient subsidy; Rubus spectabilis; salmonberry; salmon-derived nutrients; stomata; stomatal density
Nutrients derived from the carcasses of Pacific salmon have been shown to have wide-ranging effects on riparian systems. These include changes in community species composition and an increase in leaf nitrogen concentration, with the latter effect pronounced in the nitriphilic shrub Rubus spectabilis (salmonberry). Experimental work with other species has shown that leaf stomatal density increases in response to nitrogen fertilization. We predicted that the stomatal density of salmonberry leaves would vary directly with the density of spawning salmon in salmonberry leaves collected from 16 streams in the vicinity of Bella Bella, on British Columbia's central coast. We estimated the stomatal density along each stream, and quantified stream characteristics, including the number of spawning salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), canopy cover, stem density and soil moisture. We found that salmon have both direct and indirect effects on stomatal density, the latter mediated by canopy cover and stem density. Salmonberry stomatal density increased by 1.12 stomata per mm(2) (similar to 0.5%) for every kg of salmon per metre of stream. Over the range of salmon densities observed (1.8-49.0 kg per metre of stream), stomatal density increased by almost 45 mm(-2), or more than 20%. These data confirm that the stomatal density in salmonberry responds positively to the opportunity for greater productivity provided by salmon carcasses. The data provide insight into the physiological and morphological processes supporting nitrogen uptake, which in turn influences plant community composition. A is available for this article. DOI
25. Kindsvater, HK; Reynolds, JD; de Mitcheson, YS; Mangel, M. (2017) Selectivity matters: Rules of thumb for management of plate-sized, sex-changing fish in the live reef food fish trade.Fish. Fish. 18: 821-836 Selectivity matters: Rules of thumb for management of plate-sized, sex-changing fish in the live reef food fish trade
capture-based aquaculture; egg limitation; fishery selectivity; live reef food fish; protogynous hermaphrodite; spawning potential ratio
Effective management of fisheries depends on the selectivity of different fishing methods, control of fishing effort and the life history and mating system of the target species. For sex-changing species, it is unclear how the truncation of age-structure or selection of specific size or age classes (by fishing for specific markets) affects population dynamics. We specifically address the consequences of plate-sized selectivity, whereby submature, plate-sized fish are preferred in the live reef food fish trade. We use an age-structured model to investigate the decline and recovery of populations fished with three different selectivity scenarios (asymptotic, dome-shaped and plate-sized) applied to two sexual systems (female-first hermaphroditism and gonochorism). We parameterized our model with life-history data from Brown-marbled grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus) and Napoleon fish (Cheilinus undulatus). Plate-sized selectivity had the greatest negative effect on population trajectories, assuming accumulated fishing effort across ages was equal, while the relative effect of fishing on biomass was greatest with low natural mortality. Fishing such sex-changing species before maturation decreased egg production (and the spawning potential ratio) in two ways: average individual size decreased and, assuming plasticity, females became males at a smaller size. Somatic growth rate affected biomass if selectivity was based on size at age because in slow growers, a smaller proportion of total biomass was vulnerable to fishing. We recommend fisheries avoid taking individuals near their maturation age, regardless of mating system, unless catch is tightly controlled. We also discuss the implications of fishing post-settlement individuals on population dynamics and offer practical management recommendations. DOI
24. Hurteau, LA; Mooers, AO; Reynolds, JD; Hocking, MD. (2016) Salmon nutrients are associated with the phylogenetic dispersion of riparian flowering-plant assemblages.Ecology 97: 450-460 Salmon nutrients are associated with the phylogenetic dispersion of riparian flowering-plant assemblages
angiosperms; community assembly; flowering plants; marine nutrient subsidy; mean nearest taxon distance; Oncorhynchus; phylogenetic community structure; salmon
A signature of nonrandom phylogenetic community structure has been interpreted as indicating community assembly processes. Significant clustering within the phylogenetic structure of a community can be caused by habitat filtering due to low nutrient availability. Nutrient limitation in temperate Pacific coastal rainforests can be alleviated to some extent by marine nutrient subsidies introduced by migrating salmon, which leave a quantitative signature on the makeup of plant communities near spawning streams. Thus, nutrient-mediated habitat filtering could be reduced by salmon nutrients. Here, we ask how salmon abundance affects the phylogenetic structure of riparian flowering plant assemblages across 50 watersheds in the Great Bear Rainforest of British Columbia, Canada. Based on a regional pool of 60 plant species, we found that assemblages become more phylogenetically dispersed and species poor adjacent to streams with higher salmon spawning density. In contrast, increased phylogenetic clumping and species richness was seen in sites with low salmon density, with steeper slopes, further from the stream edge, and within smaller watersheds. These observations are all consistent with abiotic habitat filtering and biotic competitive exclusion acting together across local and landscape-scale gradients in nutrient availability to structure assembly of riparian flowering plants. In this case, rich salmon nutrients appear to release riparian flowering-plant assemblages from the confines of a low-nutrient habitat filter that drives phylogenetic clustering. DOI
23. Kindsvater, HK; Braun, DC; Otto, SP; Reynolds, JD. (2016) Costs of reproduction can explain the correlated evolution of semelparity and egg size: theory and a test with salmon.Ecology Letters 19: 687-696 Costs of reproduction can explain the correlated evolution of semelparity and egg size: theory and a test with salmon
Costs of reproduction; demography; iteroparity; life history theory; offspring size; salmon; semelparity
Species' life history traits, including maturation age, number of reproductive bouts, offspring size and number, reflect adaptations to diverse biotic and abiotic selection pressures. A striking example of divergent life histories is the evolution of either iteroparity (breeding multiple times) or semelparity (breed once and die). We analysed published data on salmonid fishes and found that semelparous species produce larger eggs, that egg size and number increase with salmonid body size among populations and species and that migratory behaviour and parity interact. We developed three hypotheses that might explain the patterns in our data and evaluated them in a stage-structured modelling framework accounting for different growth and survival scenarios. Our models predict the observation of small eggs in iteroparous species when egg size is costly to maternal survival or egg number is constrained. By exploring trait co-variation in salmonids, we generate new hypotheses for the evolution of trade-offs among life history traits. DOI
22. Kindsvater, HK; Mangel, M; Reynolds, JD; Dulvy, NK. (2016) Ten principles from evolutionary ecology essential for effective marine conservation.Ecology and Evolution 6: 2125-2138 Ten principles from evolutionary ecology essential for effective marine conservation
Conservation; demography; extinction risk; fish; life-history theory; management; reference points; sustainability
Sustainably managing marine species is crucial for the future health of the human population. Yet there are diverse perspectives concerning which species can be exploited sustainably, and how best to do so. Motivated by recent debates in the published literature over marine conservation challenges, we review ten principles connecting life-history traits, population growth rate, and density-dependent population regulation. We introduce a framework for categorizing life histories, POSE (Precocial-Opportunistic-Survivor-Episodic), which illustrates how a species' life-history traits determine a population's compensatory capacity. We show why considering the evolutionary context that has shaped life histories is crucial to sustainable management. We then review recent work that connects our framework to specific opportunities where the life-history traits of marine species can be used to improve current conservation practices. DOI
21. Pardo, SA; Kindsvater, HK; Reynolds, JD; Dulvy, NK. (2016) Maximum intrinsic rate of population increase in sharks, rays, and chimaeras: the importance of survival to maturity.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 73: 1159-1163 Maximum intrinsic rate of population increase in sharks, rays, and chimaeras: the importance of survival to maturity
The maximum intrinsic rate of population increase (r(max)) is a commonly estimated demographic parameter used in assessments of extinction risk. In teleosts, r(max) can be calculated using an estimate of spawners per spawner, but for chondrichthyans, most studies have used annual reproductive output (b) instead. This is problematic as it effectively assumes all juveniles survive to maturity. Here, we propose an updated r(max) equation that uses a simple mortality estimator that also accounts for survival to maturity: the reciprocal of average life-span. For 94 chondrichthyans, we now estimate that r(max) values are on average 10% lower than previously published. Our updated r(max) estimates are lower than previously published for species that mature later relative to maximum age and those with high annual fecundity. The most extreme discrepancies in r(max) values occur in species with low age at maturity and low annual reproductive output. Our results indicate that chondrichthyans that mature relatively later in life, and to a lesser extent those that are highly fecund, are less resilient to fishing than previously thought. DOI
20. Weir, LK; Kindsvater, HK; Young, KA; Reynolds, JD. (2016) Sneaker Males Affect Fighter Male Body Size and Sexual Size Dimorphism in Salmon.American Naturalist 188: 264-271 Sneaker Males Affect Fighter Male Body Size and Sexual Size Dimorphism in Salmon
alternative mating strategies; competition; latitudinal clines; salmonids; sexual selection
Large male body size is typically favored by directional sexual selection through competition for mates. However, alternative male life-history phenotypes, such as "sneakers," should decrease the strength of sexual selection acting on body size of large "fighter" males. We tested this prediction with salmon species; in southern populations, where sneakers are common, fighter males should be smaller than in northern populations, where sneakers are rare, leading to geographical clines in sexual size dimorphism (SSD). Consistent with our prediction, fighter male body size and SSD (fighter male: female size) increase with latitude in species with sneaker males (Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and masu salmon Oncorhynchus masou) but not in species without sneakers (chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta and pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). This is the first evidence that sneaker males affect SSD across populations and species, and it suggests that alternative male mating strategies may shape the evolution of body size. DOI
19. Godwin, SC; Dill, LM; Reynolds, JD; Krkosek, M. (2015) Sea lice, sockeye salmon, and foraging competition: lousy fish are lousy competitors.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 72: 1113-1120 Sea lice, sockeye salmon, and foraging competition: lousy fish are lousy competitors
Pathogens threaten wildlife globally, but these impacts are not restricted to direct mortality from disease. For fish, which experience periods of extremely high mortality during their early life history, infections may primarily influence population dynamics and conservation through indirect effects on ecological processes such as competition and predation. We conducted a competitive foraging experiment using outmigrating juvenile Fraser River sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) to determine whether fish with high abundances of parasitic sea lice (Caligus clemensi and Lepeophtheirus salmonis) have reduced competitive abilities when foraging. Highly infected sockeye were 20% less successful at consuming food, on average, than lightly infected fish. Competitive ability also increased with fish body size. Our results provide the first evidence that parasite exposure may have negative indirect effects on the fitness of juvenile sockeye salmon and suggest that indirect effects of pathogens may be of key importance for the conservation of marine fish. DOI
18. Harding, JMS; Segal, MR; Reynolds, JD. (2015) Location Is Everything: Evaluating the Effects of Terrestrial and Marine Resource Subsidies on an Estuarine Bivalve.PLoS One 10 Location Is Everything: Evaluating the Effects of Terrestrial and Marine Resource Subsidies on an Estuarine Bivalve
Estuaries are amongst the world's most productive ecosystems, lying at the intersection between terrestrial and marine environments. They receive substantial inputs from adjacent landscapes but the importance of resource subsidies is not well understood. Here, we test hypotheses for the effects of both terrestrial- and salmon-derived resource subsidies on the diet (inferred from stable isotopes of muscle tissue), size and percent nitrogen of the soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria), a sedentary estuarine consumer. We examine how these relationships shift across natural gradients among 14 estuaries that vary in upstream watershed size and salmon density on the central coast of British Columbia, Canada. We also test how assimilation and response to subsidies vary at smaller spatial scales within estuaries. The depletion and enrichment of stable isotope ratios in soft-shell clam muscle tissue correlated with increasing upstream watershed size and salmon density, respectively. The effects of terrestrial- and salmon-derived subsidies were also strongest at locations near stream outlets. When we controlled for age of individual clams, there were larger individuals with higher percent nitrogen content in estuaries below larger watersheds, though this effect was limited to the depositional zones below river mouths. Pink salmon exhibited a stronger effect on isotope ratios of clams than chum salmon, which could reflect increased habitat overlap as spawning pink salmon concentrate in lower stream reaches, closer to intertidal clam beds. However, there were smaller clams in estuaries that had higher upstream pink salmon densities, possibly due to differences in habitat requirements. Our study highlights the importance of upstream resource subsidies to this bivalve species, but that individual responses to subsidies can vary at smaller scales within estuaries. DOI
17. Swain, NR; Reynolds, JD. (2015) Effects of Salmon-Derived Nutrients and Habitat Characteristics on Population Densities of Stream-Resident Sculpins.PLoS One 10 Effects of Salmon-Derived Nutrients and Habitat Characteristics on Population Densities of Stream-Resident Sculpins
Movement of nutrients across ecosystem boundaries can have important effects on food webs and population dynamics. An example from the North Pacific Rim is the connection between productive marine ecosystems and freshwaters driven by annual spawning migrations of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp). While a growing body of research has highlighted the importance of both pulsed nutrient subsidies and disturbance by spawning salmon, their effects on population densities of vertebrate consumers have rarely been tested, especially across streams spanning a wide range of natural variation in salmon densities and habitat characteristics. We studied resident freshwater prickly (Cottus asper), and coastrange sculpins (C. aleuticus) in coastal salmon spawning streams to test whether their population densities are affected by spawning densities of pink and chum salmon (O. gorbuscha and O. keta), as well as habitat characteristics. Coastrange sculpins occurred in the highest densities in streams with high densities of spawning pink and chum salmon. They also were more dense in streams with high pH, large watersheds, less area covered by pools, and lower gradients. In contrast, prickly sculpin densities were higher in streams with more large wood and pools, and less canopy cover, but their densities were not correlated with salmon. These results for coastrange sculpins provide evidence of a numerical population response by freshwater fish to increased availability of salmon subsidies in streams. These results demonstrate complex and context-dependent relationships between spawning Pacific salmon and coastal ecosystems and can inform an ecosystem-based approach to their management and conservation. DOI
16. Swain, NR; Hocking, MD; Harding, JN; Reynolds, JD. (2014) Effects of salmon on the diet and condition of stream-resident sculpins.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 71: 521-532 Effects of salmon on the diet and condition of stream-resident sculpins
Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) can subsidize freshwater food webs with marine-derived nutrients from their eggs, juveniles, and carcasses. However, trophic interactions between spawning salmon and freshwater fish across natural gradients in salmon subsidies remain unclear. We tested how salmon affected the diets and condition of two dominant freshwater consumers - prickly and coastrange sculpins (Cottus asper and Cottus aleuticus, respectively) - across a wide gradient of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) biomass from 33 streams in the Great Bear Rainforest of British Columbia, Canada. Sculpin diets shifted from invertebrates and juvenile salmonids to salmon eggs when salmon arrived in autumn, with salmon-derived nutrient contributions to diets and sculpin condition increasing with increasing biomass of spawning salmon among streams. Season, habitat, and individual sculpin body size and species also mediated the effects of salmon on sculpin diet as inferred from their carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures. This study shows the timing and pathways by which spawning salmon influence the diets and condition of freshwater consumers, and some of the individual and environmental factors that can regulate uptake of salmon nutrients in streams, thus informing ecosystem-based management. DOI
15. Artelle, KA; Anderson, SC; Cooper, AB; Paquet, PC; Reynolds, JD; Darimont, CT. (2013) Confronting Uncertainty in Wildlife Management: Performance of Grizzly Bear Management.PLOS One 8 Confronting Uncertainty in Wildlife Management: Performance of Grizzly Bear Management
DECISION-MAKING; CONSERVATION; FISHERIES; POPULATION; MORTALITY
Scientific management of wildlife requires confronting the complexities of natural and social systems. Uncertainty poses a central problem. Whereas the importance of considering uncertainty has been widely discussed, studies of the effects of unaddressed uncertainty on real management systems have been rare. We examined the effects of outcome uncertainty and components of biological uncertainty on hunt management performance, illustrated with grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) in British Columbia, Canada. We found that both forms of uncertainty can have serious impacts on management performance. Outcome uncertainty alone - discrepancy between expected and realized mortality levels - led to excess mortality in 19% of cases (population-years) examined. Accounting for uncertainty around estimated biological parameters (i.e., biological uncertainty) revealed that excess mortality might have occurred in up to 70% of cases. We offer a general method for identifying targets for exploited species that incorporates uncertainty and maintains the probability of exceeding mortality limits below specified thresholds. Setting targets in our focal system using this method at thresholds of 25% and 5% probability of overmortality would require average target mortality reductions of 47% and 81%, respectively. Application of our transparent and generalizable framework to this or other systems could improve management performance in the presence of uncertainty. DOI
14. Hocking, MD; Dulvy, NK; Reynolds, JD; Ring, RA; Reimchen, TE. (2013) Salmon subsidize an escape from a size spectrum.Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 280 Salmon subsidize an escape from a size spectrum
SPECIES ABUNDANCE DISTRIBUTIONS; BODY MASS RELATIONSHIPS; STRUCTURED FOOD WEBS; PACIFIC SALMON; POPULATION-DENSITY; ENERGY USE; COMMUNITIES; ECOSYSTEMS; PREDATION; NUTRIENTS
A general rule in ecology is that the abundance of species or individuals in communities sharing a common energy source decreases with increasing body size. However, external energy inputs in the form of resource subsidies can modify this size spectrum relationship. Here, we provide the first test of how a marine resource subsidy can affect size spectra of terrestrial communities, based on energy derived from Pacific salmon carcasses affecting a forest soil community beside streams in western Canada. Using both species-based and individual approaches, we found size structuring in this forest soil community, and transient community-wide doubling of standing biomass in response to energy pulses from Pacific salmon carcasses. One group of species were clear outliers in the middle of the size spectrum relationship: larval calliphorid and dryomyzid flies, which specialize on salmon carcasses, and which showed a tenfold increase in biomass in their size class when salmon were available. Thus, salmon subsidize their escape from the size spectrum. These results suggest that using a size-based perspective of resource subsidies can provide new insights into the structure and functioning of food webs. DOI
13. Braun, DC; Reynolds, JD. (2012) Cost-effective variable selection in habitat surveys.Methods in Ecology and Evolution 3: 388-396 Cost-effective variable selection in habitat surveys
conservation; cost-effectiveness; diminishing returns; efficiency; monitoring; multicollinearity; survey design
1. Researchers usually expect to understand the ecological systems better when they examine more variables. However, we cannot measure everything because time and money are limited, so we need to make difficult choices. Decisions are complicated by the fact that variables are often either uninformative or highly correlated, leading to diminishing returns on information with new variables. Correlated variables and diminishing returns on information per variable can be explicitly incorporated with costs of data collection to design cost-effective survey programmes. 2. We develop a step-by-step quantitative protocol to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of survey designs under different cost scenarios to help scientists and managers design cost-effective surveys. We illustrate this protocol using a case study that relates physical stream habitat variables to variation in sockeye salmon spawning populations. 3. We present our protocol by comparing linear regression models containing different combinations of variables representing different survey designs. The steps of the protocol are to (i) eliminate redundant variables, (ii) calculate costs scenarios, (iii) calculate survey performance metrics and (iv) identify and compare a subset of survey designs that maximize effectiveness at a given cost. Survey designs are compared by their ranked performance using R 2, AICc, average cost-effectiveness ratio and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. 4. Our case study shows diminishing returns on the information provided by the addition of more variables as survey costs increase. The protocol supports the design of cost-effective monitoring programmes and leads to a general discussion relating changing environmental conditions to survey costs, including the need for clear and measurable objectives, which allow scientific information to be translated into management options. DOI
12. Connors, B.M., Braun, D.C., Peterman, R.M., Cooper, A.B., Reynolds, J.D., Dill, L.M., Ruggerone, G.T. & Krkosek, M. (2012) Migration links ocean-scale competition and local ocean conditions with exposure to farmed salmon to shape wild salmon dynamics.Conservation Letters 2012, 1-9 Migration links ocean-scale competition and local ocean conditions with exposure to farmed salmon to shape wild salmon dynamics.
Climate, competition, and disease are well-recognized drivers of population
dynamics. These stressors can be intertwined by animal migrations, leading to
uncertainty about the roles of natural and anthropogenic factors in conservation
and resource management. We quantitatively assessed the four leading
hypotheses for an enigmatic long-term decline in productivity of Canada’s
iconic Fraser River sockeye salmon: (1) delayed density-dependence, (2) local
oceanographic conditions, (3) pathogen transmission from farmed salmon, and
(4) ocean-basin scale competition with pink salmon. Our findings suggest that
the long-term decline is primarily explained by competition with pink salmon,
which can be amplified by exposure to farmed salmon early in sockeye marine
life, and by a compensatory interaction between coastal ocean temperature
and farmed-salmon exposure. These correlative relationships suggest oceanicscale
processes, which are beyond the reach of current regulatory agencies,
may exacerbate local ecological processes that challenge the coexistence of
fisheries and aquaculture-based economies in coastal seas.Website DOI
11.Reynolds, J.D., Favaro, B. & Côté. (2012) Canada: A bleak day for the environment.Nature 487, 171 Canada: A bleak day for the environment
It was a dark day for environmental science and policy in Canada on 29 June.
The country's Conservative Party has been steadily dismantling environmental protection since winning a majority government last year (see, for example, Nature http://doi.org/h2v; 2012). Further alarming changes to environmental laws were concealed in a 'budget bill' that was ratified by the Senate on 29 June.
For example, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act has been replaced by a weaker law that reduces government oversight of the environmental impact of a proposed pipeline from the Alberta oil sands to tankers off British Columbia. Canada's Fisheries Act now allows for more pollution and no longer protects fish habitats, except for fisheries. The National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, which provides independent scientific advice on sustainable development, will be dissolved in March 2013. A finance committee that had no scientific or public input has decided that this massive legislative overhaul could proceed as written.
Globally significant research facilities have already been axed, including the renowned Experimental Lakes Area and the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory in the high Arctic. Scientific agencies such as Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO), Environment Canada and Parks Canada have had to sack most of the personnel responsible for habitat management and monitoring, including those in the DFO's marine-pollution programme.
The new legislative framework marginalizes science in environmental management, and could do irreparable harm to the environment and the economy it supports. Such tactics match Canada's intransigence on climate change: the same bill made it the first country to pull out of the Kyoto agreement.Website DOI
10. Field, RD; Reynolds, JD. (2011) Sea to sky: impacts of residual salmon-derived nutrients on estuarine breeding bird communities.Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 278: 3081-3088 Sea to sky: impacts of residual salmon-derived nutrients on estuarine breeding bird communities
coastal watersheds; ecosystem-based management; biodiversity; wetlands; fisheries; Great Bear Rainforest
Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) returning to streams around the North Pacific Rim provide a nutrient subsidy to these ecosystems. While many species of animals feed directly on salmon carcasses each autumn, salmon-derived nutrients can also be stored in coastal habitats throughout the year. The effects of this storage legacy on vertebrates in other seasons are not well understood, especially in estuaries, which can receive a large portion of post-spawning salmon nutrients. We examine the effects of residual salmon-derived nutrients, forest habitats and landscape features on summer breeding birds in estuary forests. We compared models containing environmental variables and combined chum (Oncorhynchus keta) and pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) salmon biomass to test predictions concerning bird density and diversity. We discovered that total bird, insectivore, golden-crowned kinglet and Pacific wren densities and Shannon's diversity in the summer were strongly predicted by salmon biomass in the autumn. For most metrics, this relationship approaches an asymptote beyond 40 000 kg of salmon biomass. Foliage height diversity, watershed catchment area and estuary area were also important predictors of avian communities. Our study suggests that the legacy of salmon nutrients influences breeding bird density and diversity in estuaries that vary across a wide gradient of spawning salmon biomass. DOI
9. Hocking, MD; Reynolds, JD. (2011) Impacts of Salmon on Riparian Plant Diversity.Science 331 Impacts of Salmon on Riparian Plant Diversity
The study of natural gradients in nutrient subsidies between ecosystems allows for predictions of how changes in one system can affect biodiversity in another. We performed a large-scale empirical test of the role of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) in structuring riparian plant communities. A comparison of 50 watersheds in the remote Great Bear Rainforest of British Columbia's central coast in Canada shows that salmon influence nutrient loading to plants, shifting plant communities toward nutrient-rich species, which in turn decreases plant diversity. These effects are mediated by interactions between salmon density and the physical characteristics of watersheds. Predicting how salmon affect terrestrial ecosystems is central to conservation plans that aim to better integrate ecosystem values into resource management. DOI
7. Paddack, MJ; Reynolds, JD; Aguilar, C; Appeldoorn, RS; Beets, J; Burkett, EW; Chittaro, PM; Clarke, K; Esteves, R; Fonseca, AC; Forrester, GE; Friedlander, AM; Garcia-Sais, J; Gonzalez-Sanson, G; Jordan, LKB; McClellan, DB; Miller, MW; Molloy, PP; Mumby, PJ; Nagelkerken, I; Nemeth, M; Navas-Camacho, R; Pitt, J; Polunin, NVC; Reyes-Nivia, MC; Robertson, DR; Rodriguez-Ramirez, A; Salas, E; Smith, SR; Spieler, RE; Steele, MA; Williams, ID; Wormald, CL; Watkinson, AR; Côté, IM. (2009) Recent Region-wide Declines in Caribbean Reef Fish Abundance.Current Biology 19: 590-595 Recent Region-wide Declines in Caribbean Reef Fish Abundance
GREAT-BARRIER-REEF; MASS MORTALITY; CORAL-REEFS; DIADEMA-ANTILLARUM; TROPHIC CASCADES; MARINE RESERVES; PROTECTED AREAS; COMMUNITIES; POPULATIONS; ECOSYSTEMS
Profound ecological changes are occurring on coral reefs throughout the tropics [1-3], with marked coral cover losses and concomitant algal increases, particularly in the Caribbean region [4]. Historical declines in the abundance of large Caribbean reef fishes likely reflect centuries of overexploitation [5-7]. However, effects of drastic recent degradation of reef habitats on reef fish assemblages have yet to be established. By using meta.-analysis, we analyzed time series of reef fish density obtained from 48 studies that include 318 reefs across the Caribbean and span the time period 1955-2007. Our analyses show that overall reef fish density has been declining significantly for more than a decade, at rates that are consistent across all subregions of the Caribbean basin (2.7% to 6.0% loss per year) and in three of six trophic groups. Changes in fish density over the past half-century are modest relative to concurrent changes in benthic cover on Caribbean reefs. However, the recent significant decline in overall fish abunclance and its consistency across several trophic groups. and among both fished and nonfished species indicate that Caribbean fishes have begun to respond negatively to habitat degradation. DOI
6. Perry, AL; Low, PJ; Ellis, JR; Reynolds, JD. (2005) Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes.Science 308: 1912-1915 Climate change and distribution shifts in marine fishes
We show that the distributions of both exploited and nonexploited North Sea fishes have responded markedly to recent increases in sea temperature, with nearly two-thirds of species shifting in mean latitude or depth or both over 25 years. For species with northerly or southerly range margins in the North Sea, half have shown boundary shifts with warming, and all but one shifted northward. Species with shifting distributions have faster life cycles and smaller body sizes than nonshifting species. Further temperature rises are likely to have profound impacts on commercial fisheries through continued shifts in distribution and alterations in community interactions.
1.Reynolds, JD. (1996) Animal breeding systems.Trends in Ecology & Evolution 11: A68-A72 Animal breeding systems
The study of breeding systems explores relationships between mating behaviour and parental care. Recent findings have shown that in many birds, fishes, anurans, and insects, females play a more active role than previously thought, by engaging in mate choice, mating with more than one male, and selecting genetic partners separately from social partners, Theoretical advances have improved our understanding of the effect of parental care on sex differences in mating behaviour, though less attention has been devoted to feedback in the opposite direction, The original emphasis on the role of ecology in determining breeding systems has been overshadowed by studies of individual interactions, but modern comparative techniques may provide a new fusion between ecology, life histories, and reproductive behaviour.
